功利主义的争议
Mill认为
We can use utilitarian framework to distinguish between higher and lower pleasures, it is possible to make qualitative distinctions of worth.
同时：
Justice is the most sacred and the most incomparably binding part of morality.
Because society as a whole will be better off in the long-run.
Dilemma 1
有时候，偏好和 higher or worthier pleasure 并不能完美匹配。
eg. reading Shakespares
Dilemma 2
为什么 justice 是最重要的？功利主义是尊重人的价值的唯一理由吗？
eg. 医生不取活人的器官，是因为长期对社会风气有害（大家不爱去看病），还是因为道德的本质约束？
Strong theories of rights
认为：Individuals matter not just as instruments to be used for a larger social purpose，or for the sake of maximizing utility.
主张：Individuals are separate beings with separate lives worthy of respect.
Libertarianism
The fundamental individual right is the right to liberty.
That means:
- a right to choose freely &
- to live our lives as we please，
- provided we respect other people’s rights.
Robert Nozick
(according to libertarian theory), 提出
No Paternalist（家长主义者） legislation
国家无权立法强制公民做事，除非公民通过立法程序进行了选择。
(eg. passing laws that protect people from themselves, like wearning a helmet)
No Morals legislation
不能以立法形式，以促进道德名义来侵犯个人自由。
(eg. prevent sexual intimacy between gay and lesbians)
No Redistribution of wealth from rich to poor
政府职能只限于提供优先的公共服务, like national defense and 。
Nozick反对财富再分配
Nozick: What makes income distribution just?
Justice in Acquisition (initial holdings) 正当竞争：原始积累方式是否正当
Justice in Transfer (free market)
Thus：taxation = taking of earnings = forced labor = slavery
（Violates principle of self-possession）
Nozick的观点反对者
Objections to libertarian:
- The poor need the money more.
- Taxation by consent of the governed is not co-erced.
- The wealthy people own a debt to society.
- Wealth depends partly on luck or other factors.
Discussion
The fundamental premise of self-possession is discounted, because everyone living in a society.
Thus we don’t purely own ourselves. 因为你生活在人群社会中。
Is the fundamental right to religious liberty different from the right
to private property?
Maybe 因为religious是私人的，但是财产是社会共同创造的。
Nozick Quote
From each as they choose, to each as they are chosen.
—— Nozick
（任尔选择，给尔所选。选择的后果自负）
总结
自由派主张 avoid a society where some people can be used for the sake of common welfare.
We should resort to the intuitively powerful idea that: we are the proprietors of our own person.